Items in italic are for Higher tier only.
General cell components (membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, mitochondria); plant cell components (cellulose wall, chloroplasts, vacuole); life processes (movement, reproduction, sensitivity, growth, respiration, excretion and nutrition);
Movement of substances in and out of cells by diffusion across a partially-permeable membrane, osmosis down a water concentration gradient (leading to turgidity/flaccidity in plant cells), and active transport against a concentration gradient.
Parts of the human digestive system (mouth, oesophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, liver, pancreas); roles of enzymes (amylase, protease and lipase) and their production in glands; roles of stomach acid and bile; absorption of food in small intestine aided by large surface area with villi.
Providing energy for all life processes (in plants and in animals); aerobic respiration (C6H12O6 + 6O2 -->6CO2 + 6H2O), requiring oxygen, similar in some ways to burning; energy content of foods; calorimetry;
Anaerobic respiration in humans (glucose --> lactic acid + energy), releasing less energy than aerobic respiration and leading to an oxygen debt, lactic acid accumulation, and muscle fatigue; anaerobic respiration (fermentation) in plants and yeast (glucose --> carbon dioxide + ethanol + energy).
Parts of respiratory system (ribs, external intercostal muscles, lungs, diaphragm, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles and alveoli) and how their structure relates to their function; mechanism of ventilation; composition of inhaled and exhaled air; how mucus-secreting cells and cilia keep lungs clean; links between smoking and respiratory disease (excess mucus production and destruction of cilia leading to bronchitis, destruction of alveoli causing emphysema, chemicals in tar causing lung cancer).
Equation (carbon dioxide + water + light energy absorbed by chlorophyll --> glucose + oxygen) with symbols; structures of a leaf (cuticle, epidermis, palisade and spongy layers, stomata, veins, xylem and phloem) and how this relates to its function; factors affecting and limiting the rate of photosynthesis (light intensity, temperature, carbon dioxide concentration); fate of glucose (storage, respiration, use to make cellulose/protein/chlorophyll); need for minerals to produce important compounds (nitrogen for amino acids, phosphorus for DNA and membranes, magnesium for chlorophyll); mineral deficiencies producing poor growth.
Circulation: arteries, veins and capillaries and how vessel structure relates to function; contribution of William Harvey; double circulatory system; parts of heart (valves, atria and ventricles) and associated vessels (aorta, vena cava, pulmonary artery/ vein); valves in heart and veins; formation of tissue fluid;
Blood: composition (red/white cells, platelets and plasma); red blood cells (with haemoglobin, high surface area and no nuclei) carry oxygen; skin (as barrier) and white blood cells (engulfing microbes or producing antibodies) protect against infection; platelets help in blood clotting;
In plants: water enters root cells by osmosis aided by root hairs; water and minerals transported up xylem vessels (dead cells with no cytoplasm) in vascular bundles; transpiration (evaporation from inside leaves) pulls water up; stomata on underside of leaves can open and close due to guard cells; waxy cuticle reduces water loss; factors affecting transpiration (light, temperature, air movement, humidity); living phloem tissue transports sugars.
Organisms and habitats: concept of habitats, populations and communities; organisms restricted to certain habitats; predators influence prey numbers; competition (between animals for food and between plants for light and water) influences distribution; mutualism; adaptations to habitats in camels and polar bears;
Food chains and energy flow: pyramids of numbers and biomass and the reason for their shape and limited number of levels; energy transfer (input from sunlight, transfer up food chain, loss as heat and waste products); efficiency of food production (vegetarianism, factory farming); carbon cycle (decomposers, respiration, fossil fuels); nitrogen cycle (decomposers, nitrifying and denitrifying bacteria, nitrogen fixation, nitrate uptake by plants);
Human impacts on the environment: impact of increasing human populations (demand for food production, waste disposal and energy); impact of biological and chemical pest control; acid rain and greenhouse effect; importance of limiting population increase, waste production and food and energy demands to sustainable levels; conservation of endangered species.
All organisms respond their surroundings (stimulus --> receptor --> co-ordination --> effector --> response);
In animals: receptors detect stimuli (light, sound, pressure, temperature and chemicals) and form nerve impulses;
Parts of the eye (cornea, iris, pupil, lens, fovea, retina, optic nerve, ciliary muscles and blind spot); iris, pupil and retina control amount of light entering the eye; cornea and lens focus image; retina with rods and cones detects light;
Structure and function of sensory and motor neurones; information from receptors sent to central nervous system which may bring about reflex or voluntary action; reflex arcs bring about rapid, unconscious responses to help protect the body from damage; information transmitted chemically across synapses, which can be disrupted by drugs (e.g. alcohol, solvents);
Hormones (chemical messengers secreted by glands) bring about a slow but often long-lasting response; insulin produced by pancreas; ADH produced by pituitary gland; oestrogen/progesterone produced by ovaries involved in puberty and menstrual cycle; testosterone produced by testes; use of hormones to control fertility and illegally improve sporting performance;
In plants: bending growth movements in response to light and gravity benefit plants; plants have hormones; auxins promote growth in shoots (especially on shaded side); commercial uses of plant hormones (rooting powder, seedless fruits, herbicides).
Importance of homeostasis;
Insulin helps control blood glucose levels by promoting storage of glucose as glycogen in liver and can be used by diabetics;
Control of body temperature (altering blood flow to skin, shivering, sweating, muscle/liver activity); skin structures involved in temperature control; control of temperature by brain; variations in body temperature affect enzyme action;
Wastes (urea, excess water/salt) removed by kidneys which filter blood and reabsorb water (promoted by ADH) and useful substances; water gain/loss must balance; excretion of carbon dioxide and water through alveoli and capillaries in lungs.
Genes and chromosomes: nucleus containing a characteristic number of chromosomes (long DNA molecules divided into genes, chemical instructions controlling organisms by coding for proteins) which are inherited; sex chromosomes;
Variation: may be due to genes or environment or both; Francis Galton's ideas on intelligence; variation may arise from mutations in genes or chromosomes; likelihood of mutation increased by radiation and certain chemicals; cystic fibrosis due to a recessive inherited gene mutation; Down's syndrome due to an extra chromosome;
Sexual reproduction generates variation by random fusion of gametes (containing a half set of chromosomes) produced in meiosis; asexual reproduction producing identical clones involves mitosis and is involved in reproduction (by bulbs, tubers and runners) and artificial propagation of many plants;
Manipulating genes: animal cloning and the issues surrounding it; genetic engineering by transferring DNA between organisms; selective breeding in animals and plants;
Genetic crosses: outcome of monohybrid cross; dominant and recessive alleles; genotype and phenotype; homozygous and heterozygous; parental/F1/F2 generations; Mendel's work; use of crosses to determine genotypes;
Evolution: Darwin's observations (over-reproduction, populations remaining constant, variation, heritability); natural selection leading to changes within a species (e.g. peppered moth) or to new species; extinction; fossils as evidence for evolution.
Feeding and digestion: need for fat, protein, carbohydrate, fibre, calcium, iron, and vitamins A, C and D in diet; importance of balanced diet (especially in vegetarians); diet causing health problems (tooth decay, heart disease); diet related to body requirements in childhood, adolescence and pregnancy;
Blood and the circulation: heart rate influenced by blood pressure (related to salt intake), carbon dioxide (due to exercise); heart rate controlled by nerves and hormones (e.g. adrenaline); importance of constant blood pressure to prevent kidney failure or stokes; changes to pulse and blood pressure during exercise;
Hormones: effects of adrenaline (on respiratory and circulatory systems) preparing the body for action;
Excretion: structure and function of kidney tubule (filter unit, region of selective reabsorption, region of salt and water regulation); principle of dialysis machine and its use;
Nervous system: pathway of nervous impulses in a reflex arc (sensory/relay/motor neurones, dorsal root, grey matter, ventral root); simple and conditioned reflexes; regions of brain (cerebrum for voluntary actions and conscious thought, cerebellum for balance, medulla for control of reflex actions); skeletal muscles as effectors, stimulated by motor neurones.
Classification: definition of species, natural and artificial systems of classification; work of John Ray and Carl Linnaeus; use of binomial system; characteristics of animal and plant kingdoms;
In animals: how reptiles are better suited to land than amphibians; how blowfly larvae and woodlice respond to light/humidity; how metamorphosis enables blowflies to exploit different food sources and habitats; gills in fish; how their methods of gas exchange restricts amphibians and fish to their habitats;
In plants: how a cactus is adapted to arid conditions (reduced surface area/volume ratio, reduction in transpiration, reduced leaves but need for photosynthesis, storage of water); how a flower (e.g. deadnettle) is adapted for pollination by bees.
Microbes causing food poisoning and its prevention by good hygiene; factors influencing rate of microbe growth; need for sterile conditions when handling microbes; food preservation (by canning, freezing, drying, ultra heat treatment, high solute concentrations); issues surrounding irradiation and chemical preservatives;
Use of microbes to produce yoghurt, bread, alcohol, vinegar, single cell protein; value of mycoprotein as a food source;
Characteristics of enzymes (effect of pH and temperature, ‘lock-and-key' model);
Formation of recombinant DNA (obtaining gene, cloning gene, inserting gene into host, use of vectors); production of enzymes for food manufacture using genetic engineering; issues surrounding genetic engineering.
Disease causing agents: infectious and non-infectious diseases; parasites and pathogens; importance of hygiene;
Bacteria (with cell wall and no nucleus, reproducing asexually) causing disease (e.g. whooping cough, tetanus);
Fungi (with mycelium of hyphae, no chlorophyll, and spores) causing disease (e.g. athlete's foot);
Viruses (non-living particles invading host cells) causing disease (e.g. common cold); spread of HIV/AIDS;
How parasites (Toxocara, tapeworm, head lice) infect people and how their spread can be prevented;
Antibiotics: kill or slow growth of bacteria but not viruses; evolution of resistant bacteria; discovery of penicillin;
Immunisation: introduction of a mild or dead form of the pathogen resulting in antibody production; active and passive immunisation; risks and benefits; reason for lack of success in producing vaccine against the common cold; work of Edward Jenner with smallpox and Louis Pasteur with rabies;
Plants and disease: infectious diseases of plants and their control by selective breeding, chemical treatment and crop rotation.
Disclaimer: I cannot guarantee the accuracy of the information given here, and the syllabus may change in the future. For authoritative information about this course, see the OCR web site.